Causes of occurrence

The main difference between fainting and prolonged loss of consciousness is that the latter is a broader concept, consisting of a number of other conditions. Fainting is characterized by the presence of hypoperfusion of the brain and the short duration of the episode.

There are several causes of its occurrence. They have varying degrees of health risk. The main one is a decrease in blood pressure (BP), in which the blood supply to the brain deteriorates. Fainting occurs when the blood pressure falls below 60 mmHg.

Chronic heart failure, rare pulse, bradycardia and low cardiac output also lead to the development of this condition. When the autonomic nervous system is insufficient, peripheral vascular resistance decreases, making it difficult to deliver blood to the organs.

Reflex fainting is associated with a sudden drop in blood pressure when the body changes position from horizontal to vertical. It is the most common cause among others. Inadequate blood flow is sometimes associated with mechanical obstruction. For example, in thromboembolism of the pulmonary artery.

Other causes include a long stay in a stuffy room, at a concert, a party, playing in a casino (associated with a still emotional outburst), too active physical activity, taking some medications, overheating, blood loss.

Symptoms

It is important to know the symptoms of fainting, in order to provide first aid in time. Loss of consciousness, even a short-term one, is dangerous in that it contributes to the injury of the person. Fainting becomes the cause of a traffic accident or leads to fractures, abrasions, wounds.

Three main stages are distinguished:

• Pre-fainting state,
• fainting,
• The post-fainting period.

Typically, fainting usually begins with a pre-fainting state. It varies depending on the age and health of the person. Approaching fainting begins with a feeling of discomfort, clouding, dizziness, tinnitus, darkening of the eyes, and weakness. The patient then loses consciousness. At the same time, he slowly slumps down, “rolling” down the wall. His skin becomes pale and sticky sweat appears.

His pulse is slow and difficult to detect, and his blood pressure is lower than normal. Breathing becomes sparse and shallow. In fainting, the episode of loss of consciousness is brief, not more than 1 minute. Weakness may persist for up to an hour.

Indications for hospitalization

Patients with reflex syncope need not be hospitalized. All others require in-hospital observation by a physician for at least 24 hours. Patients are always admitted to the hospital if they have experienced palpitations, chest pains or sudden headaches before fainting.

Attention is paid to patients with myocardial infarction, with a history of valvular damage. As well as with clinical signs of cervical vein swelling, chronic heart failure. Hospitalization is often indicated for patients over 70 years of age, with changes on the ECG.

Rules of first aid

When the victim loses consciousness, it is quite difficult to visually determine the cause of this condition. Therefore, it is necessary to check the presence of a pulse on the carotid arteries and breathing. This will make sure that the person has no impaired vital functions.

Next, the victim should lie on his back and raise his legs. This can be done by putting clothes or any other objects, which are at hand. Such a position will ensure blood flow to the head and eliminate cerebral hypoperfusion.

It is also necessary to provide access to air, especially in a stuffy room. To do this, you should open the window or vents if it is a casino – where there are usually no windows, you can turn on the air conditioner, unbutton restrictive clothing, the shirt collar, remove tight jewelry from the neck. You can loosen the belt on your pants.

At the pre-faint stage, if you have ammonia on hand, you can moisten a cotton ball and bring it to the victim’s nose. If the person has already lost consciousness, you should not resort to such manipulation, as it may cause burns of the nasal mucosa.

Such emergency measures are carried out not only in children, but also in adults. After the child regains consciousness, you should not immediately raise him on his feet. It is better to let him lie down and fully recover. And afterwards you can drink sweet tea or plain water.

There are several common mistakes that are not only useless, but can also harm others:

1. Pat on the cheeks. This method will not help to bring the victim to his senses. The fact is that light blows will not help anything, and stronger ones may cause bruising of soft tissues.
2. Splash the face with water. In the warm season, this method is simply useless, but in the cold can cause harm to the person.
3. Taking medications. It is forbidden to give any pills to an unconscious victim until specialized medical care is provided.

So, help to a fainting person in the street comes down to the fact that it is necessary to give him a horizontal position, to free him from tight clothing, as well as to provide access to fresh air. If the person does not regain consciousness for more than 5 minutes, you should call and wait for an ambulance.

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A favorable prognosis for myocardial infarction depends on the actions taken by the patient and his family during the acute period of the disease. More than a third of all deaths from the consequences of myocardial infarction occur within 10-15 minutes after the first signs, symptoms of the disease. This high mortality rate is explained by the lack of basic resuscitation skills in many people and fear of the disease. Therefore, knowledge of the disease symptoms and ability to provide first aid will help you to save your life and health of yourself and those who will be near at the moment of heart attack.

According to statistics, heart attack in men is 5 times more common than in women, and doctors call coronary heart disease the main cause of this acute emergency condition. Heart attack in women is diagnosed 10-15 years later by age, and there is a connection with female sex hormones, which are good at protecting blood vessels from the development of atherosclerosis and deposition of cholesterol plaques.

Therefore, cardiologists now include male sex, old age, and heredity among the causes of heart attack. Usually the basis of the disease is a narrowing of the arteries that feed the heart because they are affected by atherosclerosis or because a blood clot clogs such a vessel. However, acute infarction may also be caused by trauma to an artery, radiation damage, vasospasm, or clotting disorders. People who have congenital anomalies of the coronary vessels that have not been corrected or corrected by surgery are at risk. As well as people who don’t follow a healthy lifestyle, don’t watch their diet, don’t exercise, and have a lot of stress in their lives. For example, a young man, after work, relaxing at a party with friends, after going to play casino, there spend a few more hours, and from the news that he won at roulette, the body gets such a load that it can occur and a heart attack.

First aid for myocardial infarction

Before proceeding to emergency care, it is important to learn how to accurately differentiate the symptoms of a heart attack from an angina attack.

The symptoms of these diseases are similar because they have the same causes: with angina, just like with heart attack, painful attacks appear due to insufficient blood supply (ischemia) to the heart muscle – the myocardium. The lack of blood supply to the myocardium is mainly due to atherosclerosis, a process of cholesterol deposition in the blood vessels. Over time, the lumen in the vessels becomes smaller, and one day a cholesterol plaque completely cuts off blood flow to the muscle.

The main difference between the symptoms of angina and heart attack is the inability to stop the painful symptoms with nitroglycerin. The thing is that without blood supply to a certain part of the myocardium, irreversible processes begin in it – necrosis (necrosis) of muscle tissue. Therefore, pills in this situation are ineffective. Also, painful sensations during a heart attack don’t disappear even after resting.

The main symptoms of a heart attack are:

• Sharp pain behind the sternum, in the left shoulder blade, left shoulder and arm. Sometimes the pain spreads to the neck, teeth, jaw, and even the stomach.
• Dizziness, chills, weakness, pallor due to lack of proper blood supply. The body is covered with cold sweat and the patient is short of breath.
• The blood pressure may rise or fall sharply, the pulse quickens, and the patient has panic and fear of death.

Nausea, coughing, and pain in atypical places such as fingers, teeth, or stomach are also part of the symptoms. Because of this, people sometimes confuse the first signs of a heart attack with symptoms of other diseases. Another fairly common and most dangerous symptom of a heart attack is complete cardiac arrest.

If you find yourself or your loved ones with the symptoms described above – call an ambulance immediately!

Actions of a patient with myocardial infarction

If you caught the disease when no one is around – do not panic! First aid for myocardial infarction can help yourself!

First, explain to the ambulance dispatcher in detail how to get to your apartment or house, as there will be no one to meet the paramedics. Leave your front door open.

• Open windows or turn on the air conditioner to get fresh air.
• Put a nitroglycerin tablet/capsule under your tongue. In this way, the drug will penetrate into the bloodstream more quickly and relieve some of the pain.
• Another drug that can help in the first minutes of a heart attack is aspirin. It will thin the blood and relieve symptoms. In order for the drug to work quickly, the tablet should be chewed. The approximate dose is 300 mg.
• Sit or lie down with a pillow under your back and head or any other suitable object that will keep the upper part of the body a little bit higher than the lower part. The legs should be bent at the knees. In this position of the body, it will be easier for the heart to pump blood. Next, you have to wait for the paramedics.

First aid for myocardial infarction

If someone nearby has a heart attack, you have 5-10 minutes to help the person through the most dangerous stage of the disease while the ambulance crew is on its way. If possible, send someone to meet the ambulance.

First aid for myocardial infarction symptoms begins with an attempt to calm the person, sit or lay him down. Hold the upper part of the patient’s torso slightly above the lower part and ask him to bend his knees.

Help the person undo his outer clothing, if you are indoors, make sure there is good ventilation. The pain in a heart attack, depending on the focus of the necrosis, can be so severe that it can cause death by pain shock. If it is not uncommon for a patient to have a heart attack, he is likely to have a nitroglycerin tablet with him. Put the tablet under his tongue, this will ease the course of the illness.

In some cases, the patient’s panic state during a heart attack threatens his health. In such a case, as part of the first emergency aid, it is recommended to give the person a sedative: Corvalol or Valokordin.

If the patient has lost consciousness, and there is no rhythmic breathing – as part of the first emergency aid urgently proceed to cardiopulmonary resuscitation. To save the person, you have 3-5 minutes. To do this, remember the algorithm of actions:

• To start the stopped heart from a height of 30-40 cm from the patient’s chest, apply a strong blow to the chest with the rib of the palm clenched in the fist (pre-cardiacal blow). Then feel for a pulse on the carotid artery. If there is no pulse, go to indirect heart massage and CPR;
• put a roll under the patient’s neck, constructed of improvised objects. Tilt the patient’s head back as much as possible;
• if necessary, clean the oral cavity with a tissue;
• give about 15 chest compressions alternating with two full exhalations into the mouth or nose. Periodically check the pulse on the carotid artery. If a heart attack occurs at the airport, train station – draw the attention of staff and ask for help. In places with mass gatherings of people there are sometimes automatic defibrillators.

Rescue efforts should continue until the patient regains consciousness, but no more than 5-7 minutes. If the heart cannot be restarted during this time, the person can no longer be helped.

How to take nitroglycerin correctly

The first tablet of nitroglycerin is discharged immediately after the appearance of pain symptoms. At intervals of 15-20 minutes, you can take two more tablets. Nitroglycerin is not recommended when myocardial infarction is accompanied by low blood pressure.

It is important to remember that nitroglycerin does not relieve pain in the same way as with angina pectoris. Therefore, if two or three pills did not help, you should stop taking them temporarily.

Remember, myocardial infarction is preventable! To avoid the development of the disease, it is necessary to undergo timely examination of the cardiovascular system and to be observed by a cardiologist.

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When burns occur, you need to be able to provide proper first aid in time. On how quickly you help yourself or the injured person will depend on his further condition and the speed of treatment.

The human body is able to regenerate and repair minor burns itself without serious health consequences. More serious burns require immediate medical attention to prevent complications. Such wounds must be monitored to prevent infection and treated regularly with anti-inflammatory medications or anti-burn cloths.

If you happen to be near a burn victim, you firmly need to know how to treat a burn, otherwise you will cause more harm than good with your actions.

Causes of burns
A burn can occur due to exposure to:

Fire;
Hot liquid or steam;
Hot metal, glass, or other objects
Electric current;
Radiation (X-rays or radiation therapy);
ultraviolet light (sun or tanning bed);
active chemicals.
It is worth noting that the causes of burns can also be different, but all types of this kind of injury are classified according to the degree of damage caused and the symptomatology:

First degree. This burn affects only the outer layer of the skin. The injury is characterized by redness, swelling and painful sensations. The victim is given first aid and a short course of treatment is prescribed.
Second degree. This burn leads to damage not only to the epidermis, but also to the underlying layer – the dermis. The damage is characterized by red, white or blotchy skin, pain and swelling. It is possible to develop burn blisters and severe pain syndrome.
Third degree. This injury affects the fat layer under the skin. Burnt areas of the body become charred, black or white. Often third-degree burns damage the nervous and respiratory systems.

THE FIRST STEPS TO NEUTRALIZE THERMAL BURNS

Move the victim as far away from the heat source as possible;
If clothing or equipment is smoldering, get rid of it immediately. If clothing is stuck to the skin, cut it off or remove it carefully;
ice the injured area or use cold water;
treat the injured area with an ointment for burns;
In cases of serious injury call for an ambulance.

NEUTRALIZING CHEMICAL BURNS

Flush the affected area with a strong stream of water. Never treat the wound with oil.
If burns have been caused by quicklime or sulfuric acid, the wound should be Treat the wound with a dry cloth, do not use water;
Apply a sterile antiseptic dressing.
There are situations when people receive severe burns. Treating them outside the hospital requires special knowledge and skills. If a person does not possess them – it is better to immediately contact a doctor.

Degree of burns
There are three main degrees of burns: first, second and third. The assessment of each degree is based on the severity of the skin damage: the first degree is the most minor, and the third is the most serious.

Signs of damage are as follows:

First-degree burns: there is a violation of the epidermal layer, the skin is red, slightly swollen;
Second-degree burns: blisters and peeling of the skin;
Third-degree burns: there is tissue necrosis, the skin turns white, crusts form;
There are also fourth-degree burns. This degree includes all the symptoms of third-degree burns. The damage penetrates beyond the skin and spreads to the tendons and bones. This is when scars remain after a burn.

Chemical and electrical burns require immediate medical attention because they can affect internal organs, even if the external injuries are barely visible.

The type of burn does not depend on the cause of the burn. Scalds, for example, can cause all three types of burns – thermal, chemical and physical, depending on how hot the liquid is and how long it remains in contact with the skin.

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An ointment or gel for burns with boiling water works well for kitchen problems. If second- or third-degree burns have been received, inpatient treatment is required. It should be taken in a clinic under the supervision of doctors. The therapist will recommend what to treat the burn or how to treat a burn with blisters.

How to treat blister burns at home
Never puncture the blister – this can lead to infection;
rinse the burn under cool running water;
apply an anti-inflammatory cream or gel with an analgesic effect in a thin layer;
apply a bandage to the burn area after treatment;
treat the burn with a blister and change the bandage daily.
Skin recovery after a burn
What helps with burns is accurate hygiene and regular treatment of the wound.

After an injury, a blister immediately forms on the skin, filled with clear plasma that can seep through the burned tissue. With proper treatment, inflammation and suppuration can be avoided, and regeneration is quicker.

In just a few days, the burn blisters will begin to recede and exfoliate, and new skin will begin to form under the blister. During this time, the wound may itch, but you can not touch the affected area – by the end of the first week, the itching will pass by itself.

If the wound is neglected, festering may occur. It may be accompanied by fever, sudden weakness and chills. With such a history, regeneration of the skin can take weeks. In this case, the appearance of thickened growths and rolls is likely.

How can I prevent scars after a burn?
Burn scars appear depending on the characteristics of the victim’s body. In any case, their appearance can be prevented by timely use of anti-scratch gels and ointments, as well as special silicone wound coverings and moisturizing creams.

Treatment of scars and scars after burns
If you are interested in how to get rid of the external consequences of a burn, you need to know that with serious skin disorders, the scar will remain in any case. Here you will need the help of a cosmetologist, who will help restore the normal appearance of the skin.

Usually for this kind of surgery, a technique of excision of the scar is used, after which several cosmetic sutures are placed on the tissue. When the stitches are removed, the damaged area is treated with ointments that prevent new scars from forming on the skin.

For particularly difficult cases, such as burns with boiling water, a laser resurfacing technique is used. Modern equipment makes it possible to remove scars completely and achieve perfect skin. If the severity of the burn is minor, a chemical peel with fruit acids is recommended.

Burn remedies
With what to treat a burn, and what operational help can be provided by yourself in the field or at home?

Using creams like Levomycol or Spasatel is guaranteed to help with minor injuries, such as briefly touching a hot pan. Dexpanthenol works very well for first-degree burns. If the degree of damage is more serious, creams can only be used as a preventative measure and you should not rely on them as such.

Burn remedies such as sprays or gels – such as Burnshield anti-burn hydrogel – are more effective because they are dispersed and better absorbed by the skin. These preparations combine two functions – anti-inflammatory and analgesic.

There is another type of treatment – special anti-burn dressings. They are recommended when the patient needs to be outdoors. Such dressings prevent dirt and dust from entering the wound.

What not to use to treat a burn
When receiving a burn of any degree for therapeutic purposes should not be used:

oil;
honey and propolis;
ice;
toothpaste;
chemicals.
To reduce the risk of general burns

In the home, it can be fairly easy to reduce the risk of burns, you just need to follow a few guidelines:

Do not leave food being cooked or already cooked on the stove unattended;
frying pans should be placed on the stove with their handles toward the back of the stove;
any hot liquids must be placed out of the reach of children and pets – boiling water is a frequent cause of thermal burns;
do not store electrical appliances near water;
do not cook in flammable clothing;
your child’s access to electrical and gas appliances should be blocked;
Plug sockets that are not in use must be fitted with protective caps;
Do not smoke in the home;

Smoke detectors require regular maintenance and replacement of batteries;
The house or apartment should be equipped with a fire extinguisher;
Chemical burns are caused by chemicals – these must be kept out of reach of children and pets.
Where to turn in case of burn injuries?
A person may not always be able to effectively remove burn blisters or provide the necessary care at home, and then there is no need to waste time and engage in self-treatment.

In case of complications, you should immediately contact your primary care physician. The specialist will tell you what tests need to be done, determine the degree of the burn from the signs and develop a course of treatment, taking into account special remedies.

The post Treatment for burns appeared first on Cdham.

Capillary bleeding – occurs due to damage to small vessels as a result of trauma or disease. It appears first as a bloody dew, and then as a slow flow of blood outside the skin. This condition can be especially dangerous for those with clotting disorders;
Internal (parenchymatous) bleeding is a rather dangerous condition which results from damage to internal organs which have a large blood supply network (spleen, liver, kidneys);
arterial bleeding is the result of damage to the aorta, femoral and other arteries and appears as a stream of bright scarlet color with pulsation. The danger of such blood loss in its rapid nature, and therefore the timeliness of assistance in recalculation in fractions of a second plays a vital role, allowing to avoid death caused by damage to the main artery;
venous bleeding is the slowest. The blood is thick, dark burgundy in color, and clots may form. Bleeding from a damaged vein is dangerous because of thrombus rupture, significant blood loss, or air bubbles getting into a pulmonary vessel.
types of bleeding

First-aid measures for capillary bleeding

How to stop capillary bleeding? First, you need to treat the edges of the wound with an antiseptic solution (peroxide, iodine, green). Secondly, you need to apply a non-tight gauze bandage. Before bandaging, place absorbent cotton on the wound surface. If the area of the injury is large, it is necessary to seek qualified medical help.

First Aid for Venous Bleeding

Blood clots when bleeding from a vein should not be removed, as this may provoke more blood loss. As a first aid, a pressure dressing of a strong bandage or cloth should be applied. If this method is ineffective, the use of a tourniquet is recommended. Absorbent cotton or other soft material and a note with the time of application should be placed under it to avoid unnecessary trauma to the skin. The maximum duration of the tourniquet on the victim’s body is 1 hour in the cold season (winter, autumn) and 2 hours in the warm season. If this time frame is exceeded, there is a possibility of tissue narcosis. Instead of a tourniquet you can use various improvised materials – tight belts, ties, short sticks with cloth, twisted towels, etc.

Arterial bleeding – temporary stopping of arterial bleeding

First aid for arterial bleeding requires extra care, reactivity, and speed. Make sure the victim has no fractures and elevate the limb with the injury. A tissue tourniquet or tourniquet should be placed above the site of the injury. The time limit is the same as for stopping venous bleeding. Instead of fixation material, you can press the artery with your finger at the pulsatile point above the point of injury. If the ulnar, popliteal, femoral, or brachial arteries are bleeding, you need to fix the limb in a maximum flexed and elevated position.

TOURNIQUET APPLICATION
Effective first aid for bleeding requires 100% stopping the flow of blood from the injured blood vessel. If bandaging materials, tissue twists and other improvised means are powerless in this matter, it is worth using a tourniquet. But remember that this is an extreme measure, because in most cases it leads to damage to tissues and nerve trunks. Imposing a tourniquet is also shown in case of traumatic amputation, difficulty in determining the location of bleeding.

First aid for internal bleeding
Parenchymal bleeding is quite difficult to recognize immediately. But such symptoms as dizziness, cold sweats, fainting, thready pulse should make you think about how to stop the blood. The first thing to do is to call an ambulance and place the victim in a half-sitting position, applying ice or a cold compress to the supposed bleeding site.

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How to know if it is a bone fracture
In fractures:

There is severe pain in the injured area;
changes in the shape of the limb, the position of the limb is unusual;
impaired motor function;
swelling develops in the injured area, and blood clots may form under the skin.
First Aid for Closed Fracture
Providing first aid for a closed fracture, you should immediately contact an ambulance. After that, you should immobilize the broken limb and, if possible, apply ice or a cold object to the injury site. The person can be given a pain medication. If you transport yourself, a splint is put on from improvised objects: a board, a stick, a ski, etc.

If no improvised means are available, the injured limb is strapped to the uninjured limb. During transportation, the injured person should lie down – a broken limb should be lifted slightly.

First aid for an open fracture
Such an injury is extremely dangerous, because the wound can be infected. First aid for an open fracture begins with stopping the bleeding with a pressure dressing or tourniquet if there is significant blood loss. Antiseptics are used to treat the skin around the wound. In order to transport the victim, a splint must be carefully applied without touching the wound.

Types of Fractures
HAND FROUND
First aid for arm fractures is based on the rapid immobilization of the limb, the application of the splint and fixation. Severe pain is relieved with painkillers. If painful shock began to develop, the victim is warmed, given hot tea. It should be noted that drinking is forbidden if the patient vomits or has an abdominal trauma. When the symptoms of shock are eliminated, the injured person can be moved.

An open arm fracture requires stopping bleeding using a tourniquet, which is applied above the injury. Antiseptics are used to treat the wound. After stopping the bleeding and treating the wound, it is necessary to carry out the procedure of fixation of the arm.

It is strictly forbidden to attempt bone reduction.

FRACTURE OF THE LEG
First aid for leg fractures involves the use of a splint with which to fix the limb. An open injury may bleed, so you should stop the bleeding by using a tourniquet. The wound is treated with antiseptics, and if the victim feels severe pain, anesthetics are used.

It is strictly forbidden to try to set the bone on your own.

SPINAL FRACTURE
A spinal fracture is a severe injury that is life-threatening for the victim. Painkillers for such a fracture should be given very quickly, with the immediate need to perform fixation of the body. Boards, doors, plywood are used to move the person. The head is fixed with a rigid collar of suitable objects.

It is forbidden to sit down, try to put up, pull on limbs, and straighten the victim’s spinal column.

PELVIC FRACTURE.
A pelvic fracture can be accompanied by severe complications and internal bleeding, sometimes ending in disability and death. When providing first aid in such cases, you should examine the victim, immobilize him in the supine position (knees should be bent), fix the pelvis and raise the knees with a roller. In addition, you should constantly monitor the condition of the patient, until the arrival of the doctors.

It is forbidden to sit or try to put the patient up.

RIB FRACTURE.
Rib fractures can damage internal organs and the cardiovascular system, which is very dangerous for the victim. However, a simple fracture of one or two ribs does not require the attention of specialists – the patient recovers on his own. In complicated cases, it is necessary to urgently hospitalize the injured person and provide him with qualified assistance.

This type of fracture requires rest, so it is worth limiting active movements and sports.

KNEE FRACTURE
First aid for lower leg injuries consists of fixing the limb, applying a splint, taking painkillers by the patient. If there is bleeding, a tourniquet is put on.

It is strictly forbidden to set the bone.

KNEE FRACTURE
Shoulder trauma can be complicated by internal hemorrhage, which is extremely dangerous to health. The patient needs to be immobilized with a splint for the fracture, and painkillers should be given. The patient should be moved in a sitting position.

The shoulder should not be repositioned and the patient should not be carried without fixation of the limb.

HIP FRACTURE
This type of fracture can be complicated by massive hemorrhage into the thigh tissues and injury from bone fragments. When a hip fracture occurs, you should stop the bleeding with a tourniquet, use analgesics for pain relief, fix the limb, immobilize the patient, and take him to the clinic.

Do not self-repair the hip or pull the limb.

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The basic signs of life include consciousness, independent breathing and circulation. These are checked during the cardiopulmonary resuscitation algorithm.

Causes of respiratory and circulatory disturbances

Sudden death (respiratory and circulatory arrest) can be caused by diseases (myocardial infarction, heart rhythm disorders, etc.) or by external effects (trauma, electric shock, drowning, etc.). Regardless of the causes of loss of life signs, cardiopulmonary resuscitation is carried out in accordance with a specific algorithm recommended by the Russian National Resuscitation Council and the European Resuscitation Council.

The most common complication of cardiopulmonary resuscitation is fracture of the bones of the thorax (mainly ribs). It occurs most often when there is excessive force of hands on the victim’s sternum, improperly defined point of hand placement, increased bone fragility (for example, in elderly and elderly victims).

You can avoid or reduce the frequency of these errors and complications with regular and quality preparation.

Assess the safety for yourself, the victim(s) and others at the scene
At the scene, the first responder should assess the safety for himself or herself, the victim(s), and others. Then eliminate threatening factors or minimize the risk to self, victim(s), and others.

Check that the victim is conscious
The next step is to check that the victim is conscious. To check consciousness, gently shake the victim by the shoulders and ask loudly, “What’s wrong? Do you need help?”. An unconscious person will not be able to respond and answer these questions.

What to do if there are no signs of consciousness
If there are no signs of consciousness, you should determine if the victim is breathing. To do this, restore airway patency by placing one hand on the victim’s forehead and placing two fingers on the chin, tilting the head back and lifting the chin and lower jaw. If there is a suspicion of cervical spine injury, tilting should be done as gently and sparingly as possible.

How to find out if you are breathing
To check for breathing, lean your cheek and ear against the victim’s mouth and nose and for 10 seconds try to hear him breathing, feel the air being exhaled on your cheek and see the victim’s chest movements. In the absence of breathing, the victim’s chest will remain still, no breathing sounds will be heard, and the exhaled air from the mouth and nose will not be felt on the cheek. Lack of breathing determines the need to call an ambulance and perform cardiopulmonary resuscitation.

What to do if not breathing
If the victim is not breathing, the first responder should arrange to call an ambulance. To do this, call loudly for help, addressing a specific person near the scene of the accident and give them the appropriate instructions. Instructions should be given in a short, clear, informative way: “The person is not breathing. Call an ambulance. Let me know what you have called.”

What to do if it is impossible to involve a helper
If no helper is available, you should call the ambulance yourself (e.g., using the speakerphone function on your telephone). When making a call, be sure to give the dispatcher the following information: the location of the accident, what happened, the number of victims and what is wrong with them, what kind of help is being provided. Hang up the phone last, after the dispatcher answers.

Simultaneously with the ambulance call, apply pressure to the victim’s sternum with your hands
While calling the ambulance, it is necessary to start hand pressure on the victim’s sternum, who should be lying on the back on a hard and even surface. In this case, the palm base of one hand of the first aid worker is placed on the middle of the victim’s chest, the second hand is placed on top of the first, the hands are locked, the arms are straightened at the elbow joints, the shoulders of the first aid worker are placed over the victim so that the pressure is perpendicular to the sternum plane. Pressure by the hands on the victim’s sternum is applied with the weight of the torso of the first aid worker to a depth of 5-6 cm at a frequency of 100-120 per minute. After 30 hand presses on the victim’s sternum, it is necessary to perform mouth-to-mouth artificial respiration. To do this, open the airways of the victim (tilt the head, lift the chin), clasp his nose with two fingers, take two breaths of artificial respiration.

Breaths of artificial respiration are performed as follows:
You must take your normal breath, tightly wrap your lips around the victim’s mouth, and exhale evenly into his airway for 1 second, observing the movement of his chest. The reference point for sufficient volume of air being blown in and effective inhalation of artificial respiration is the beginning of the chest rise, determined by the first aid participant visually. After that, continuing to maintain the patency of the airways, it is necessary to let the victim make a passive exhalation, and then repeat the artificial respiration in the above-described manner. Two breaths of CPR should take no more than 10 seconds. No more than two CPR breaths should be attempted between hand pressures on the victim’s sternum. The use of a CPR device from the first aid kit or stowaway is recommended.

Performing mouth-to-nose CPR
If mouth-to-mouth resuscitation is not possible (because the lips of the victim are damaged, for example), mouth-to-nose resuscitation is used. This technique differs in that the first aid worker covers the victim’s mouth while tilting the head back and wraps his or her lips around the victim’s nose.

Continue CPR
Next, continue resuscitation efforts by alternating 30 chest compressions with 2 breaths of CPR.

Major errors in the performance of resuscitation measures include:
violation of the sequence of cardiopulmonary resuscitation measures; incorrect technique of performing hand pressure on the sternum of the victim (wrong positioning of the hands, insufficient or excessive depth of pressure, wrong frequency, lack of complete elevation of the chest after each pressure); incorrect technique of artificial respiration (insufficient or incorrect opening of airways, excessive or insufficient volume of blown air); incorrect ratio of hand pressures on the chest

When providing first aid, the simplest ways of checking for the presence or absence of signs of life are used:
Indications for stopping CPR

Resuscitation measures continue until the arrival of the ambulance or other special services whose staff are required to provide first aid, and the order of the staff of these services to stop resuscitation, or until the appearance of clear signs of life in the victim (the appearance of independent breathing, the appearance of cough, arbitrary movements).

In the case of long-term resuscitation measures and physical fatigue of the participant of first aid, it is necessary to involve an assistant in the implementation of these measures. Most modern domestic and foreign recommendations for cardiopulmonary resuscitation provide for the change of its participants approximately every 2 minutes, or after 5-6 cycles of pressures and breaths.

Resuscitation measures may not be carried out by victims with clear signs of non-vital signs (decomposition or trauma incompatible with life), or in cases where the lack of signs of life is caused by the outcome of a long-standing incurable disease (e.g., cancer).

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